SI317 Human Body Function Assignment Sample NUIG Ireland

The SI317 Human Body Function course will provide students with an understanding of the essential functions of the human body. In particular, students will learn about the structure and function of the following organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary.

Students will also learn about homeostasis and how it is maintained in the body. Additionally, students will study some common diseases and disorders that can affect the human body. By the end of this course, students should understand how the human body works and apply this knowledge to maintain their health and well-being.

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In this section, we are describing some assigned briefs. These are:

Assignment Brief 1: Know the distribution of water between the fluid body compartments and understand the role of body water in cell and system function.

About two-thirds of the body’s water is contained in cells, and the remaining third is found outside of cells in blood plasma, lymph fluid, and extracellular tissues. Cellular water plays a critical role in maintaining cell function by regulating transport across cell membranes, providing a medium for chemical reactions, and helping to dissipate heat.

Water makes up about 80% of the weight of red blood cells (erythrocytes). Haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, is mainly responsible for the blood’s characteristic colour. The greater the amount of hemoglobin present in the blood, the darker its color will be. The water content of other body fluids varies depending on the particular tissue or organ involved. For example, cerebrospinal fluid, surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord, is 90% water.

Water is constantly lost from the body through urine, sweat, and exhaled air. To maintain a balance between water intake and water loss, the body must regulate its thirst mechanism and conserve water when necessary.

The kidneys play a vital role in regulating water balance by removing excess water and wastes from the blood and excreting them in urine. Urine is typically pale yellow because it contains urea, a nitrogen-containing waste product that is produced when proteins are broken down.

Assignment Brief 2: Know the components of blood, understand the process of blood clotting and understand the principles of the ABO and rhesus blood groups.

Blood is a vital fluid in our bodies. It consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and anticoagulants. Plasma is the largest component of blood and is made up of water, electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, and proteins. Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen to the body’s tissues. White blood cells protect the body against infection. Platelets help to stop bleeding by clotting the blood. Anticoagulants prevent clotting from occurring too early.

There are four main types of blood groups: A, B, AB, and O. Each blood group has different characteristics. Group A individuals have A antigens on their red blood cells and do not have B antigens. Group B individuals have B antigens on their red blood cells and do not have A antigens. AB individuals have both A and B antigens on their red blood cells. O individuals do not have either A or B antigens on their red blood cells.

The rhesus (Rh) factor is a protein that is found on the surface of red blood cells. Individuals who have this protein are said to be Rh-positive. Those who do not have the protein are Rh-negative.

Most people have no problems with their blood type. However, some people may have an allergy to a particular blood type. For example, a person with Type A blood may be allergic to Type B blood. In this case, a transfusion of the wrong blood type could be fatal.

Assignment brief 3: Know the structure and function of nerve and muscle cells.

Nerve cells, also called neurons, are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. They are specialized for the transmission of electrical signals between different parts of the body. Muscle cells, on the other hand, are responsible for generating the force necessary for movement. Both types of cells are essential for proper body function.

Neurons are complex cells that consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the other organelles found in other types of cells. Dendrites are finger-like projections that receive signals from other neurons and pass them on to the cell body. The axon is a long filament that carries outgoing signals away from the cell body.

Muscle cells, also called myocytes, are much simpler in structure than neurons. They consist of a cell body and a single, long filament called an actin filament. The actin filament is responsible for generating the force necessary for muscle contraction. Unlike neurons, muscle cells do not have dendrites or axons.

Both types of cells are essential for proper body function. Without nerve cells, the body would be unable to communicate between different parts. Without muscle cells, the body would be unable to move.

Assignment Brief 4: Understand how a nerve impulse is generated and propagated.

A nerve impulse is generated and propagated when an action potential moves down a neuron.

The action potential is created by the movement of sodium ions into and potassium ions out of the neuron. This flow of ions creates an electrical current that travels down the neuron until it reaches the end, where it triggers the release of neurotransmitters.

The neurotransmitters travel across the synapse to the next neuron, where they activate receptors and create another action potential. This process continues until the impulse reaches its target – a muscle or gland cell.

The speed at which an action potential travels down a neuron depends on the type of neuron. Myelinated neurons, which have a layer of insulation around the axon, can conduct impulses up to 100 times faster than unmyelinated neurons.

Assignment brief 5: Understand the process of muscle contraction, and how nerves can stimulate muscle cells.

Muscles contract when the actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments. This process is called the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.

The actin and myosin filaments are arranged in a cross-striated pattern. When the muscle is at rest, the two types of filaments are interdigitated, which means that they are intertwined with each other.

When the muscle is stimulated to contract, the actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments. This process is powered by ATP, which is hydrolyzed to ADP and Pi.

The sliding filament theory of muscle contraction was first proposed by Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley in 1954.

Nerves can stimulate muscle cells in two ways: directly, by releasing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction; or indirectly, by releasing the hormone epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) at the adrenergic receptors.

When ACh is released at the neuromuscular junction, it binds to the ACh receptors on the muscle cell membrane and causes an action potential. This action potential travels down the T-tubules and causes calcium ions to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Assignment brief 6: Understand the autonomic nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the nervous system that controls the body’s unconscious actions, such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. It regulates all the activities in the body that we do not have to think about, like keeping our blood pressure stable and digesting food.

The autonomic nervous system can be split into two branches: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for “fight or flight” responses, while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes “rest and digest” activities. Each branch has its network of nerves throughout the body.

The autonomic nervous system can be affected by many things, including exercise, stress, and certain drugs.

Assignment brief 7: Know the structure and function of the heart and its electrophysiology, focusing on the electrical and mechanical events at each stage of the cardiac cycle.

The heart has four chambers: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium, and right ventricle.

The heart starts to contract (beat) when an electrical signal is generated by the sinoatrial node in the right atrium. This electrical signal spreads through to the muscle of the left and right ventricles, making them contract and push blood out of the heart.

The contraction of the heart muscle is caused by an electrical event that spreads through the muscle cells. This event is called an action potential, and it begins when positively charged sodium ions enter a cell through special channels in the cell membrane. This influx of sodium ions causes the voltage across the cell membrane to change, which in turn triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

These calcium ions bind to troponin, which is a protein that is attached to the actin filaments. This binding process causes the myosin heads to pivot and attaches to the actin filament. The myosin heads then pull on the actin filament, causing the filament to slide. This sliding of the filaments is what causes the muscle cells to contract.

Assignment brief 8: Know the importance of blood pressure, and understand the basic principles of regulation.

Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of arteries as the heart pumps blood through the body. Blood pressure is regulated by several factors, including the autonomic nervous system, hormones, and local regulators in different tissues.

The autonomic nervous system controls all the “automatic” functions of the body, such as heart rate and digestion. The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system (the “fight or flight” response) increases heart rate and contracts blood vessels to push more blood to essential organs like the brain and heart. The parasympathetic branch (the “rest and digest” response) decreases heart rate and dilates blood vessels to promote general circulation.

Hormones that regulate blood pressure include adrenaline, noradrenaline, and vasopressin. Adrenaline and noradrenaline are released by the adrenal glands in response to stress. Vasopressin is released by the pituitary gland in response to decreased blood pressure or increased blood osmolarity (the concentration of solutes in the blood).

Local regulators in different tissues can also affect blood pressure. For example, the release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells (cells that line the blood vessels) leads to vasodilation (widening of the blood vessels). This lowers blood pressure and increases blood flow.

Assignment Brief 9: Understand how breathing is performed and know the volumes and capacities associated with respiration.

When you breathe in, air travels down your throat and into your lungs. There, the air fills up the millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are surrounded by small blood vessels called capillaries.

The oxygen in the air sacs diffuses through the thin walls of the capillaries into the blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses out of the capillaries and into the air sacs. This process allows oxygen to be delivered to all parts of your body and for carbon dioxide to be removed.

Breathing out occurs when your muscles contract and push carbon dioxide-rich air out of your lungs.

The amount of air that you breathe in and out with each breath is called tidal volume. The average tidal volume is about 500 mL.

When you breathe deeply, your lungs can expand and take in more air. This is called inspiratory reserve volume. The average inspiratory reserve volume is about 3,000 mL.

And finally, when you breathe out as much air as you can, your lungs are still full of air. This is called expiratory reserve volume. The average expiratory reserve volume is about 1,000 mL.

So, the total amount of air that your lungs can hold is your lung capacity. The average lung capacity is about 5,000 mL.

Assignment brief 10: Understand how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported, and how oxygen delivery is regulated and controlled.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. The level of oxygen in the blood is regulated by the amount of oxygen delivered to the tissues. The level of carbon dioxide is regulated by the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood.

The transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide is a result of four gases: oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Oxygen and nitrogen are both transported in their dissolved form while carbon dioxide and water vapor are transported as gas bubbles.

The transport of dissolved oxygen is regulated by two factors: (1) how much dissolved oxygen is available in the plasma and (2) how much hemoglobin is available to bind with dissolved oxygen. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in plasma is controlled by the lungs. The amount of hemoglobin available to bind with dissolved oxygen is controlled by the blood cells.

The transport of carbon dioxide is regulated by three factors: (1) how much carbon dioxide is available in the plasma, (2) how much hemoglobin is available to bind with carbon dioxide, and (3) how much bicarbonate is available to buffer the acidity of carbonic acid. The concentration of carbon dioxide in plasma is controlled by the tissues. The amount of hemoglobin available to bind with carbon dioxide is controlled by the blood cells. The amount of bicarbonate available to buffer the acidity of carbonic acid is controlled by the kidneys.

Assignment Brief 11: Understand the basics of hormone function, with a focus on glucose metabolism and the functions of growth hormone.

Glucose metabolism is the process by which glucose (a simple sugar) is converted into energy that the body can use. Several hormones play a role in glucose metabolism, including insulin, glucagon, and growth hormone.

Insulin is secreted by the pancreas in response to high levels of blood glucose. It signals the body to store excess glucose as glycogen or fat. Glucagon is also secreted by the pancreas, and it signals the body to break down glycogen and release glucose into the bloodstream when blood sugar levels are low. Growth hormone is a hormone that stimulates growth in children and adolescents. It also plays a role in glucose metabolism, helping to maintain normal blood sugar levels.

So, when you eat a meal that contains glucose, your blood sugar levels rise and insulin is released. Insulin signals the body to store the excess glucose as glycogen or fat. When blood sugar levels fall, glucagon is released and it signals the body to break down glycogen and release glucose into the bloodstream. Growth hormone also helps to maintain normal blood sugar levels.

Assignment brief 12: Understand the basics of immune defense.

The immune system is a complex and intricate network of organs, tissues, and cells that work together to protect the body against infection and disease.

The immune system does this by recognizing and responding to antigens-molecules that are specific to viruses, bacteria, or other organisms that can cause harm. When an antigen is detected, the immune system produces antibodies that fight off the infection or disease.

There are two basic types of immunity-innate and adaptive. Innate immunity is the first line of defense and is always active; it’s inherited from our parents and doesn’t change over time. Adaptive immunity is more sophisticated and develops over time in response to new infections or diseases. It can be enhanced through vaccines.

The immune system is constantly working to protect us from infection and disease. It does this by recognizing and responding to antigens. When an antigen is detected, the immune system produces antibodies that fight off the infection or disease. There are two basic types of immunity-innate and adaptive. Innate immunity is the first line of defense and is always active; it’s inherited from our parents and doesn’t change over time. Adaptive immunity is more sophisticated and develops over time in response to new infections or diseases. It can be enhanced through vaccines.

So, the immune system is a complex network of organs, tissues, and cells that work together to protect the body against infection and disease. It does this by recognizing and responding to antigens. When an antigen is detected, the immune system produces antibodies that fight off the infection or disease. There are two basic types of immunity-innate and adaptive.

Assignment Brief 13: Know the divisions of the central nervous system and have a basic knowledge of how the different areas function.

The nervous system is responsible for sending, receiving, and processing information throughout the body. It consists of two parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). 

The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the control center for the entire nervous system. It masterminds all of our voluntary and involuntary actions, thoughts, feelings, and memories. The spinal cord is a long bundle of nerves that runs down the center of our backs. It transmits messages between the brain and the rest of our bodies. 

The PNS includes all of the nerves that branch out from our brain and spinal cord to carry messages to every other part of our bodies. The PNS is divided into two parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. 

The somatic nervous system controls our voluntary movements, like walking and talking. The autonomic nervous system controls all of our involuntary actions, like breathing and digesting food. 

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